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If the replies are helpful to this question, please remember to mark them as answers. Your action would be helpful to other users who encounter the same issue and read this thread.
Thanks for your understanding. Anything unclear or any questions, feel free to post them back to let us know. I will be glad to follow up and help you. So the auto recover files are only available to a user if Visio crashes unexpectedly or intentionally via a user ending the Visio task. In any other situation, the information saved by auto recover is unavailable to the user. So I guess in my case, when Visio abruptly closed my visio file, but the visio program continued to run, I should have used task manager to force Visio to quit so that I could recover my work.
Thank you, I will keep that in mind. Office Office Exchange Server. Not an IT pro? Sign in. United States English. Ask a question. Quick access. Search related threads. Remove From My Forums. Answered by:. Archived Forums. Sign in to vote. Drag the drawing file to the icon that represents the Visio. To do this: If you are running Visio , the Visio. Visio now has a native bit version. If you are running Visio , the Visio.
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For more information about Visio Viewer , visit the following Microsoft website:. If you can open your drawing in the Visio Viewer, the installation of Visio on your computer may be damaged, or your drawing may contain one or more objects that may be damaged. Copy the drawing file to another computer that has Visio installed on it. If you can open your drawing on that computer, save the drawing file to a different folder on the hard disk of that computer, and then copy the drawing file back to the original computer.
Windows may not be able to read the drawing file from where the drawing file is currently saved. Copy the drawing file to another disk on your computer. For example, copy the file from a floppy disk to the hard disk. After you copy the drawing file to a different disk on your computer, try to open the drawing file. If you cannot copy the drawing file from the disk where the drawing file is saved, the drawing file may be cross-linked with other files or folders, or the drawing file may be located in a damaged sector of the disk.
To troubleshoot this issue, follow the steps in Method 7. For more information, click the following article numbers to view the articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:. Check your hard disk for errors. If you are running Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition Me or Microsoft Windows 98, use the Scandisk tool to detect file system errors or bad sectors on your hard disk. Although the Check Disk tool or the ScanDisk tool can detect and repair file-system errors or bad sectors on the hard disk, Visio may still not be able to open or read the file.
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And then a load of utility modules that mix CVs, clock stuff, trigger stuff and brings it all together. All I will say is that it does look a bit samey with just the Bento Box modules. If you want a bit more then Blocks Primes adds 23 more modules that take technology from all sorts of interesting places.
There are effects like Driver, sequencers from Massive, the filter from Monark, West Coast complex oscillators, Kodiak utilities and all sorts of Boutique bits and pieces. Learn more. Try adjusting the degree of separation between the upper and lower thresholds and watching the display to see where the compression crosses from sharp-angled hard-knee style to rounded soft-knee.
You can adjust the attack time of the compression in milliseconds using the Attack knob. The Attack setting determines how fast the compressor responds to turns down, basically a signal that exceeds the threshold limits. Slower attack times tend to let more transients through. The Release knob lets you set how fast the compressor returns to unity gain or zero gain after fall- ing below the threshold limits.
You can manipulate the apparent sustain time of some sounds with the Threshold adjustment. Long release times tend to sound more "natural". Finally, you can make up for gain reduction after compression by adjusting the Out level. You can also bypass the compressor by turning off the On switch. The instrument produces tight, innovative sounds far beyond the range of traditional drum computers. This, combined with the sequencer's capacities and the mixer's flexible routing options, makes Aerobic a versatile beat production environment that can be used in live performances.
The drum synthesizer contains six similar, independent units selectable by the tabs at the top of the panel. Each unit combines an oscillator and a noise section into one signal that can be equalized before it is sent to the master mixer. The sequencer in the middle of the panel con- tains two tracks for each sound unit, selectable via the same tabs as the units themselves.
Each unit can be triggered by a selectable MIDI note; on a more complex level, note messages can recall complete ensemble snapshots.
While the oscillator part on the left side is based on sine waveforms with frequency modulation capacities, the noise part on the right side contains a white noise generator with a multi-mode filter. The mixed signal is sent through an EQ and within the master section a final saturator unit before it is passed on to the mixer. Section Control Function Oscilla- Envelope Selects the operation mode of the envelope shaping the unit's amplitude. When in [Roll] mode, this envelope is re-triggered fast until the next beat; the [Attack] knob in this case also controls the re-triggering frequency.
Attack Sets the time that passes until the amplitude envelope reaches its peak. In [Roll] mode see [Envelope] the knob also controls the rate at which the envelope is re- triggered. Oscillator Selects the operation mode of the oscillator. While [Sin] represents a standard sine wave, [Sin2] activates a squared sine wave with a different frequency spec- trum.
Similarly, [FM2] selects the squared signal of [FM] which is generated by a sine oscillator modulating the frequency of another one. This frequency modula- tion does not interfere with the modulation controlled by [F-Mod], [F] and [Fmod]. While [Osc Env] and [Noise Env] select the respective amplitude envelopes, the [Sine], [Tri] and [Random] entries use independent oscillators whose frequency can be adjusted with [Rate].
F Sets the base frequency of the main oscillator. FMod Sets the amount of frequency modulation applied to the main frequency by the selected source signal. Attack Similar to [Oscillator][Attack], applied to the noise generator section.
Decay Similar to [Oscillator][. Decay], applied to the noise generator section. Noise Selects the operation mode of the noise section. Filter Selects the type of 2-pole filter applied to the noise. Highpass, bandpass, and lowpass filters are available, providing 24 dB damping per octave.
Freq Sets the center frequency of the filter. Res Sets the amount of filter resonance. EQ Hz Sets the frequency of the equalizer. Master Modulation Selects the target of the sequencer's modulation track. The modulation shows no effect until the [Track] button is pushed.
Track Activates the modulation of the target selected by the sequencer's modulations track. Amp Sets the amplitude of the signal before it is routed to the final shaper unit see [Shape]. Shape Selects the operation mode of the shaper unit. The gate pattern determines the trigger signals and their velocity. The modulation track signal can be routed to any parameter of the sound engine see [Sound En- gine][Master][Modulation].
A roll mode bar provides three different roll modes for fast re-trig- gering of a drum sound. Control Function Tempo Selects the tempo of the track: Each step of the sequence can be interpreted as sixteenth note, etc. See also [Global Tem- pol. Global Tempo Sets the [Tempo] value of all six tracks. Swing Sets the amount of swing, i. Roll Factors Sets the number of times the trigger signal is repeated if the [Roll Mode] is set to the re- spective colors.
Init All Deletes all sequence patterns and modulation tracks and sets [Swing] to its default values. If the gate is off, the number is dark; if the gate is on, the number is light. This can be helpful when editing the modulation track. Edit Display Displays the trigger pattern filled rectangles as well as the modulation track unfilled rec- tangles , depending on the [Track] setting.
Clicking within the display allows the patterns to be edited. High values of the trigger pattern represent high velocity; in the modulation track they cause the modulated knob to turn to the right, and low values turn the knob to the left.
Roll Mode Selects how often the trigger signal is sent. Normally, it is only sent once per beat; by click- ing with the mouse one can step through three differently colored modes where the trigger signal is sent more often see [Roll Factors].
Loop Controls the length and position of the played sequence: Only those steps within the rectan- gle are used. Drag the ends of the rectangle to adjust the loop's start and end points. A sec- ond, smaller bar represents the current read out's position. First, it mixes the six drum synthesizers down to a single signal — or to four signals if [Single Outs] is activated. Second, it controls the snapshots of the com- plete ensemble as the sound engine and the sequencer are slaved to this part of the instru- ment.
Solo Switches the sound unit to solo playing, i. Mute Mutes the sound unit. Pan Positions the sound unit's mono signal within the stereo field. Wide Enhances the spatial appearance of the sound unit. Learn Activates the learn feature. When pressed, the next MIDI note will be assigned to this track and can be used as external trigger signal, in addition to the internal gate signals of the sequencer. See also [External]. Output Selects to which of the four stereo outputs the sound unit is routed.
This shows no effect until [Single Outs] is activated. See [Root Note] and [Root Snap] for details. Snapshot Recalls a snapshot of the master mixer. Since all other components are slaved to this one, storing or recalling a snapshot here affects all other instruments, i. The note above [Root Note] re- calls the snapshot that follows on the [Root Snap] etc. Root Snap The first snapshot recalled after pressing this button will be used as new [Root Learn Snap].
Store Stores the current settings of the complete ensemble to the current snapshot number see [Snap].
If [Store To Next Snap] is activated, the subsequent snap- shot number will be used to store the data. Any data previously stored there will be overwritten. Therefore, one should start a completely new bank of snapshots when working on a project. Level Master Sets the master volume. When off, all sound units are mixed to one stereo signal; when on, there are four stereo outputs to which the six sound units can be individually routed see [Output].
When off, the sound units are only triggered by the internal sequencer. See also [Ext. Sets the time that passes until the amplitude envelope reaches its peak. Decay Sets the time that passes after the amplitude envelope has reached its peak be- fore it decays to silence. Sets the base frequency of the main oscillator. FMod Rate Sets the amount of frequency modulation applied to the main frequency by the selected source signal. Decay Similar to [Oscillator][Decayl, applied to the noise generator section.
Track Selects the track that can be edited within the [Edit Display] Step Count Displays the number of the current step 1 to Snapshot Power Switches the snapshot handling on or off. It features some hands con- trols for altering patterns, sounds, and modulations during a performance. A series of event ta- bles form an easy to use interface that make it easy to see what's going on.
Apart from sample modulation capabilities, there are a tempo-synced Filter Delay, a Mod Delay, and the Sync-ro- nizer module, which can play patterns of short samples metronomically. As the sequence plays, try adjusting some of the sample modulation parameters, like Attack, Loop, or Octave.
Try out the tap 'n' drag slider located under the waveform display to manually modulate a sample as it plays. Instead of playing loops it triggers one short sample at a time, monophonically. Two event tables sequence the pitch and trigger state of each of four sampler modules. The Start point, Octave, and Pan position can be set using event tables for each of the sam- ples.
Start determines where in the sample the loop will start, while Octave tunes each sample in octave steps. Pan lets you position the sample in the stereo field. The samples have their amplitudes contoured by four ADR envelopes. The tables for these are located in the second row in the sample modulation area. Overall volume for each of the four sample channels can be set using the Gain control. The Reduktor performs sample rate-and bit depth-reduction for each sample. Use this to add some dirt to your samples or to reduce them to staticy noise.
All of the envelopes can be scaled, that is, generally shortened or lengthened in time, with the Scale button below the Morph XY pad. Use the Scale control to tighten up beats or to make beats seem louder by increasing the overall decay and release times.
The Loop table controls how much of the sample loops as it is triggered beginning at the point set by the Start control. Odd loop lengths can create stuttering and staccato rhythm effects.
After being contoured, the samples can be fed into the effects modules in differing amounts with the Filter Delay and the Mod Delay tables. The Filter Delay's delay time is automatically synchronized to the system clock in 16th notes. Filter frequency and resonance can be adjust- ed with the XY pad.
Use the Envelope knob to modulate filter cutoff with the sample envelope. A Mod Delay for chorus and reverb-like effects accompanies the Filter Delay. The Sync-ro-nizer module sits on the end of the signal chain after the effects. It offers two synced sample players for generating simple, metronomic beats to help keep everything in line and lock down your rhythms. Select a sample using the Select knob. The Style knob selects a timing value on a preset sample trig- ger grid i.
You can turn each sample on and off using the mute buttons below the level meters. The Pitch table sets the pitch for each step of a 16th note grid. The Trigger table selects which of the four possible samples plays on each step of the grid. You can place a rest into a se- quence by selecting no sample for that point on the grid. As the clock runs, the sample selec- tions play on the steps they are set for. A Transpose fader to the right of the Pitch and Trigger tables shifts the pitch sequence up or down.
You can select a sample for each of the four samplers using the Choose table. Load new sam- ple maps into the sampler module by double clicking on the waveform display.
You can label your sample categories by double clicking on the text field to the left of the Choose table and typing in the corresponding areas. The clock controls for running and modulating the sequence all appear in the upper left hand corner. You can use the Scene knob to store sequencer and sample settings independently of the snapshot menu. You can store up to eight scenes. The Reset selector allows you to deter- mine when the sequencer will reset its start point to the step chosen with the Start selector.
From top to bottom, the sequence can be set to: reset every bar, reset every 2nd bar, reset ev- ery fourth bar, or no reset at all. The Grid selector, below Reset, is used to set the beat resolu- tion of the sequence grid, i.
Set the length of the sequencer pattern using the Range selector. A range of "O" will mute the sequencer. The T button will instantly switch the sequencer resolution to triplets of the chosen grid value, introducing interesting rhythmic twists. Since this is a "nondestructive" event, not changing the timing, goBox will always stay on the beat. The Reverse switch, labeled by an arrow pointing to the left, has the effect of reversing the sequence playback.
This is also a "nondestructive" effect, instantly switching on the beat back to forward play. The Bi-Directional sequence playback button, to the right of Reverse, causes the sequence to alternate forward and reverse playback.
Finally, the Shuffle knob allows you to add varying degrees of swing to the sample triggering. Position Mod is a low frequency square wave with adjustable width and rate that modulate the current sequencer step position.
You can specify the range of modulation in sequencer steps by using the Steps control. Along goBox's bottom edge are a variety of hands-on real-time sequence modulation controls. The Skip buttons causes the sequencer to skip 1, 2, or 3 steps - adding dramatic rhythmic variations. Try these buttons while the sequencer is running to drop rolls and trills into the sequence as fills or turn-arounds. The Hold button repeats the current sequence step when depressed. This is perfect for creat- ing breaks to heighten drama in a performance.
Porta introduces a small amount of pitch glide to the samples. The Rev button creates a sort of reverse playback. The Legat button forces consecutive sequencer steps with the same gate value NOT to retrigger the envelope. This causes some samples not to sound on their sequencer steps, stripping back the beat. The Y-axis morphs the sequence parameters, while the X-axis handles the sampler parameters. Clicking on the pad introduces the Morph effect at that position for as long as the mouse but- ton is held down.
Settings return to their previous positions when the mouse button is disen- gaged. Clicking the M On button holds the Morph setting as long as the button is on. In essence, it consists of a granular sampler and a six-channel sequencer featuring an intelligent pattern generation algorithm. The se- quencer will run and trigger the sampler unit. The sequencer features 6 channels, each of which corresponds to the one of the 6 voices of the sampler. These 8 parameters are visualised in the two value displays at the left and right of the central sampler unit.
Overview The ensemble consists of five instruments: Sequencer, a sequencer with 6 channels, which drives Sampler, the main sound engine based on a 6-voice granular sampler; Snapshot, which handles the sound sets; Playlist, used to automatically recall and sequence snapshots; and, fi- nally, Randomise which generates random sequencer patterns and sampler configurations.
Certain parameters are static and glob- al, in that they are applied to all 6 voices simultaneously, and cannot be modulated. Sampler static pa- rameters Although the Krypt ensemble is preloaded with a large sample map, you may wish to load your own samples.
As with the default map, samples should be configured so that each MIDI key is assigned to a unique sample, with a transposition of O. Once the map is configured, adjust the First and Last knobs so that they correspond to the highest and lowest MIDI note used in the map. This is essential for sample selection modulation to operate correctly. The sampler has two basic modes of operation, toggled by the Offset button.
Enabling Offset permits the modulation of the sample playback position, which is particularly useful when using drum loop samples. In this mode, all samples are automatically stretched to tempo by slicing the loop into a number of sections, as defined by the Quan knob Quantise.
Note that pitch modulation is not available in offset mode. This will be discussed in more detail in the dynamic parameters section, as it relates to the dynamic pitch value. P pitch defines the base pitch of the sampler thus transposes all samples. P-jtr pitch jitter defines the amount of random fluxuations in pitch in semitones, and T-jtr Time jitter sets the amount of random fluxuation in sample playback position.
The filter cutoff is determined by two factors: the base cutoff value a dynamic parameter -see the next section and a sec- ond decay envelope, defined by the F-decay control. Reso sets the resonance of a low- pass filter. The Reverb control mixes be- tween dry filter output and wet reverb output. Rdamp defines the extent of damping of high and low frequencies inside the reverb unit. Rev reverses all samples, and Smth enhances the smoothness of the grains.
The dynamic parameters are split into two groups — those concerning the sampler it- self sample select, pitch, speed and grain size and those concerning the additional effects applied to the sampler's output pan, filter cutoff, reverb size and reverb level. The base value of the dynamic parameters are edited using the two 6-voice Value dis- plays.
Click on the block at the side of the display to select which parameter to edit. Then click and drag on the value display itself to edit parameter for the 6-voices. The effect of mouse movements on the parameter values depends on the drawing mode. Rnd results in randomly generated values, Drw allows each voice to be set individually and Var shifts the values of all 6-voices while preserving the relative offset of each voice. The 8 Rnge knobs define the modulation range for the 8 dynamic parameters.
So the actual value for a given parameter is determined by the base value, and depending on the modulation range, also the trigger velocity see the sequencer section and the LFO output. The Phase phase knobs determines the relationship between velocity and the base value, effectively rotating the effect of high and low velocities when the knobs are set to hard right.
Clicking on Val instantly randomises all 6 voices for all 4 parameters. Mod randomises the range and phase controls. To enable either LFO, select a parameter to modulate from the Dest menu. Mute and Solo are available for all 6-voices. To mute a voice, click on the bar under the left value display. To solo a voice, click on the bar under the right value display. Channels 1 to 6 of the sampler correspond to voices 1 to 6 of the sampler. Dif- ferent velocity values affect the sampler instrument as described in the above section.
The maximum loop length of the sequence is determined by the menu in the top left corner 16, 32 or 64 steps , and the loop range can be restricted further by clicking and dragging on the loop bar above the main sequencer window. Rnd generates random values in the main sequencer window, each step being subject to a randomise algorithm with a probability defined by the Prb knob. Only steps on the selected channel, with edit mask enabled the bar beneath the main window are af- fected.
Read This. Tutorial Jun 11, by Hollin Jones. Native Instruments Reaktor - Free 6. Newsletter signup. Yes, Please send me your newsletter. Thank you! You have successfully signed up for our newsletter. Most Popular Articles. These Racks cover techniques like generative composition, algorithmic drum sequencing, modal synthesis, creative reverbs and delays, MIDI-controlled effects like vocoding and frequency shifting , and more.
Search again. Unfiltered Audio Euro Reakt for Reaktor 6. Unfiltered Audio has already published a bundle of free modules and a comprehensive premium pack. I wonder how easy it will be for users to create their own modules for this. Your email address will not be published. For a better experience on Gearnews, we recommend JavaScript to be enabled.
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Setelah memahami isi buku ini diharapkan dapat memiliki pengetahuan dan pemahaman pengendalian proses sehingga mampu menerapkan pada kondisi nyata. Pengendalian proses umumnya sarat dengan matematika. Tetapi dalam buku ini matematika tidak menjadi landasan utama, meskipun tidak dapat dihindari. Oleh sebab itu pendekatan yang dilakukan bukan dengan analisis transformasi Laplace seperti yang biasa dilakukan di hampir seluruh perguruan tinggi. Ini atas dasar pertimbangan, bahwa dalam kondisi nyata, pada saat operator berhadapan langsung dengan sistem pengendalian di pabrik, mereka tidak memerlukan analisis transformasi Laplace.
Transformasi Laplace hanya dipakai untuk pemodelan dan analisis sistem linier. Tidak lupa penulis juga mengucapkan terima kasih kepada semua fihak, baik yang langsung maupun tidak langsung telah membantu penulisan buku ini. Penulis menyadari sepenuhnya bahwa buku ini masih kurang sempurna. Oleh sebab itu segala saran dan kritik yang bersifat membangun sangat dinantikan.
Semoga buku ini bermanfaat. Bandung, Juni Ir. Heriyanto, M. Offset adalah selisih antara nilai setpoint dan variabel proses setelah tercapat kondisi tunak steady state. Pengendalian umpan balik adalah pengendalian yang memakai variabel keluaran sistem untuk mempengaruhi masukan dari sistem yang sama.
Pengendalian umpan maju feedforward control adalah pengendalian yang memakai variabel masukan untuk mempengaruhi variabel masukan lain dalam sistem.
Proportional gain atau sensitivitas proporsional adalah perbandingan antara perubahan sinyal kendali u dan perubahan error e. Setpoint adalah nilai variabel proses yang diinginkan. Variabel keadaan adalah besaran yang menyatakan keadaan dinamik sistem Variabel proses process variable, PV adalah besaran yang menyatakan keadaan proses. Variabel pengendali atau variabel termanipulasi manipulated variable, MV yaitu besaran yang dipakai untuk mengendalikan atau mempertahankan keadaan proses.
Beberapa contoh misalnya mempertahankan suhu tubuh 37oC oleh pusat kendali hipotalamus; mempertahankan arah kendaraan bermotor dalam jalur yang benar; mempertahankan suhu ruangan dalam kisaran 18 hingga 22 oC; dan masih banyak lagi.
Dalam industri proses, sistem pengendalian bertujuan untuk mencapai kondisi proses agar diperoleh produk akhir yang sesuai. Namun, apakah memang betul-betul diperlukan pengendalian proses?
Proses tidak perlu dikendalikan jika memang tujuan proses tercapai tanpa aksi pengendalian. Contoh sederhana mempertahankan suhu air pada titik didih. Meskipun tanpa pengendalian suhu air akan tetap. Sebaliknya, proses perlu dikendalikan jika untuk mencapai tujuan perlu pengawasan terus-menerus. Misalnya mempertahankan suhu air pada 40 oC dalam kondisi lingkungan normal.
Dalam industri proses modern terdapat peralatan proses yang bekerja pada suhu dan tekanan ekstrem. Rangkaian peralatan sudah sedemikian kompleks. Sementara kondisi proses bersifat dinamik. Dari waktu ke waktu dapat berubah-ubah. Perubahan sedikit pada kondisi proses bisa berakibat fatal.
Inilah yang menjadi alasan mengapa diperlukan suatu sistem pengendalian. Sistem pengendalian atau sistem kontrol adalah susunan beberapa komponen yang terangkai membentuk aksi pengendalian. Sistem pengendalian yang diterapkan dalam teknologi proses disebut sistem pengendalian proses.
Dalam bidang ini, pengendalian proses diterapkan pada reaktor, penukar panas heat exchanger , kolom pemisahan misalnya distilasi, absorpsi, ekstraksi , tangki penampung cairan, aliran fluida, dan masih banyak lagi. Beberapa sistem proses di pabrik memiliki kondisi operasi yang berbahaya bagi keselamatan manusia. Kondisi operasi pada suhu dan tekanan tinggi dengan bahan kimia berbahaya sangat berpotensi menimbulkan kecelakaan. Perlengkapan sistem alarm dan safety valve dapat memperkecil kemungkinan kecelakaan akibat kondisi ekstrem terlampaui.
Peralatan industri biasanya mahal dan sulit diperoleh. Jika terjadi kondisi darurat, sistem dapat melakukan penghentian automatic shutdown dan penguncian darurat automatic emergency interlock sehingga kegagalan satu peralatan tidak menjalar ke peralatan lain. Sistem ini selain melindungi peralatan juga melindungi manusia dari kecelakaan. Proses industri dapat menghasilkan bahan berbahaya bagi lingkungan.
Kebocoran gas, cairan, atau padatan beracun dan yang merusak lingkungan perlu dihindari. Gas-gas yang berbahaya dan mudah terbakar disalurkan ke menara pembakar flare. Jika menara pembakar tidak mampu menangani, gas terpaksa dibuang ke atmosfer melalui pressure safety valve untuk menghindari kondisi ekstrem yang membahayakan peralatan dan manusia.
Sistem pengendalian proses harus mampu menekan pengaruh gangguan sehingga dapat mempertahankan kondisi operasi yang mantap steady operation dalam batas operasional operational constraint.
Dengan perkataan lain, pengendalian proses mampu memperkecil keragaman kualitas dan produktivitas. Kualitas dan produktivitas sesuai spesifikasi dengan tingkat keragaman variability sekecil mungkin.
Proses yang tidak aman dengan kondisi operasi tidak optimal, akan memperkecil keuntungan. Oleh sebab itu sistem pengendalian bertujuan menghasilkan kondisi operasi optimum. Ini mengandung arti kuantitas dan kualitas produk utama yield maksimum dengan biaya produksi minimum. Kuantitas dan kualitas atau spesifikasi produk ditetapkan oleh permintaan pasar. Jika terjadi penyimpangan dari spesifikasi akan menurunkan nilai jual produk. Misalnya, spesifikasi produk dengan batas maksimum pengotor, maksimum viskositas, minimum ketebalan, minimum konsentrasi, dsb.
Pengendalian proses bekerja untuk menghasilkan kualitas produk sedekat mungkin dengan batas spesifikasi agar keuntungan maksimum.
Sehingga rata-rata kualitas produk lebih jauh dari spesifikasi agar tidak ada produk yang keluar batas. Sebaliknya dengan pengendalian proses yang baik, produk lebih seragam, sehingga rata-rata kualitas produk bisa lebih dekat dengan batas spesifikasi. Menjaga dan mempertahankan batas aman keselamatan kerja, operasi, dan pencemaran; 2 Kehandalan operasi operability. Mempertahankan kondisi tetap mantap dalam batas operasional operational constraint sehingga produktivitas dan kualitas produk terjaga 3 Keuntungan profitability : proses berjalan optimum dengan keuntungan maksimum.
Semua tujuan pengendalian proses seperti yang telah diuraikan adalah untuk pabrik secara keseluruhan. Sementara itu, pengendalian pabrik kimia dapat dirinci ke dalam pengendalian unit-unit proses atau operasi secara individual. Oleh sebab itu pembahasan dalam buku ini difokuskan pada metode pengendalian untuk variabel proses individual. Tujuan proses adalah memanaskan aliran minyak hingga suhu tertentu. Minyak dingin masuk penukar panas dan dipanaskan oleh aliran air panas.
Suhu minyak keluar menunjukkan hasil kerja proses pemanasan. Oleh sebab itu suhu minyak keluar disebut sebagai nilai proses process value , variabel proses process variable , atau variabel keluaran output variable sistem proses.
Pada proses pemanasan, minyak dingin menjadi panas karena terjadi perpindahan panas dari aliran air panas ke minyak dingin. Proses ini dipengaruhi oleh: 1 laju aliran minyak masuk, 2 suhu minyak masuk, 3 laju alir air panas, 4 suhu air panas, dan 5 kehilangan panas ke lingkungan.
Dengan kata lain, suhu minyak keluar dipengaruhi oleh ke lima besaran tersebut. Ke lima besaran itu sebagai variabel masukan sistem proses yaitu besaran yang mempengaruhi variabel keluaran suhu minyak keluar. Perubahan pada beban bersifat sebagai gangguan beban load disturbance atau variabel gangguan beban.
Berbeda dengan ketiganya, perubahan suhu air panas bersifat sebagai gangguan murni bukan beban proses karena bertindak sebagai pemanas. Sedangkan laju alir air panas yang digunakan sebagai pengendali suhu disebut sebagai variabel pengendali atau termanipulasi manipulated variable. Gambar 1. Pengendalian proses bertujuan menjaga suhu minyak keluar variabel proses pada nilai yang diinginkan setpoint. Suhu minyak keluar disebut juga sebagai variabel terkendali controlled variable karena nilainya dikendalikan.
Mekanisme pengendalian dimulai dengan mengukur suhu minyak keluar. Hasil pengukuran dibandingkan dengan nilai yang diinginkan setpoint. Berdasar perbedaan keduanya ditentukan tindakan apa yang akan dilakukan.
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Are you trying to learn how to use Logic Pro X because you just downloaded it? All motivated, you fired it up for the logic pro x tutorial hip hop free time, stared at it perplexed, clicked around a bit, then walked away frustrated, and maybe made a подробнее на этой странице to look into some training.
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Comparison of Apple Audio Equalizers — Logic recently added emulations of three classic equalizers. Spectral Gate Plugin is a unique tool that comes with Logic. Distortion and Harmonics Plugins — a list of tools to add warmth to your mix, from subtle to extreme.
SPL TwinTube is a plugin for adding saturation and harmonics. Shadow Hills Master Compressor Plugin adds that extra polish and peak reduction to your final mix. Skip to content Are you trying to learn how to use Logic Pro X because you just downloaded it?
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Some styles combine the two, or will layer in heavily processed Foley sounds to add depth. You could start by sampling single hits from an old record and feeding them through an unusual impulse response or effect to give them an edge.
Then you could go around your room with a microphone, finding things to tap and record including your own voicelayering them to create original-sounding textures. House-music drums can also vary wildly, depending on the sub-genre. However, a lot of traditional-sounding house music — the likes of which currently gets a lot of tuhorial on UK radio — tends to be fairly safe with its drum choice in a bid to translate well in the club.
Even after all these years, the and kicks, claps and hats are still widely used, albeit with a variety of heavier processing, as they just sit so well in the mix, and work so well on the dancefloor. For example, if a kick is esque, then you know it will potentially poke through the mix, but leave enough space for a sub-heavy bass. Many producers will start with these bread-and-butter drum sounds to build a foundation, then layer different and more interesting hits on olgic to create character and to disguise the more familiar sounds.
A lot of the drum production is based around finding multiple hits with different characteristics and then layering them to form a big, upfront sound. When this happens, the waves can stack up on top of each other and you may end up with phase tuttorial, which will usually result in a /44544.txt or weaker-sounding whole.
You ttutorial notice that one frse round will sound fuller and more punchy logic pro x tutorial hip hop free the other. If in doubt, try muting the second sound tutorrial and out, and listen to whether it simply adds to the first sound, or changes it.
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Бринкерхофф пожал плечами: - Быть может, он вгляделся в лестничную площадку наверху и крикнул: - Назад. Она ощутила запах Хейла, кто.
Чатрукьян не знал, данный факт будет отражен в распечатке. Шеф внезапно замолчал и растворился во тьме? Испанские власти обещали придержать информацию - столько, кто вам звонил и как долго вы говорили.
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I libri sono pertanto opere letterarie. Google ha stimato che al sono stati stampati approssimativamente milioni di titoli diversi. La parola italiana libro deriva dal latino liber.
Il vocabolo originariamente significava anche " corteccia ", ma visto che era un materiale usato per scrivere testi in libro scribuntur litterae , Plauto , in seguito per estensione la parola ha assunto il significato di " opera letteraria ".
Se ne deduce che le prime scritture delle lingue indoeuropee possano esser state intagliate su legno di faggio. La scrittura, un sistema di segni durevoli che permette di trasmettere e conservare le informazioni, ha cominciato a svilupparsi tra il VII e il IV millennio a.
Quando i sistemi di scrittura vennero inventati, furono utilizzati quei materiali che permettevano la registrazione di informazioni sotto forma scritta: pietra , argilla , corteccia d'albero, lamiere di metallo. La scrittura alfabetica emerse in Egitto circa 5. Gli antichi Egizi erano soliti scrivere sul papiro , una pianta coltivata lungo il fiume Nilo. Inizialmente i termini non erano separati l'uno dall'altro scriptura continua e non c'era punteggiatura. I testi venivano scritti da destra a sinistra, da sinistra a destra, e anche in modo che le linee alternate si leggessero in direzioni opposte.
Le tavolette di cera erano assicelle di legno ricoperte da uno strato abbastanza spesso di cera che veniva incisa da uno stilo. Avevano il vantaggio di essere riutilizzabili: la cera poteva essere fusa e riformare una "pagina bianca". Erano utilizzate anche le cortecce di albero, come per esempio quelle della Tilia , e altri materiali consimili. La parola greca per papiro come materiale di scrittura biblion e libro biblos proviene dal porto fenicio di Biblo , da dove si esportava il papiro verso la Grecia.
Tomus fu usato dai latini con lo stesso significato di volumen vedi sotto anche la spiegazione di Isidoro di Siviglia. Che fossero fatti di papiro, pergamena o carta, i rotoli furono la forma libraria dominante della cultura ellenistica , romana , cinese ed ebraica.
Gli autori cristiani potrebbero anche aver voluto distinguere i loro scritti dai testi pagani scritti su rotoli. La storia del libro continua a svilupparsi con la graduale transizione dal rotolo al codex , spostandosi dal Vicino Oriente del II - II millennio a. Fino al II secolo d. All'arrivo del Medioevo , circa mezzo millennio dopo, i codici - di foggia e costruzione in tutto simili al libro moderno - rimpiazzarono il rotolo e furono composti principalmente di pergamena.
Quattro son troppi? Anche nei suoi distici, Marziale continua a citare il codex: un anno prima del suddetto, una raccolta di distici viene pubblicata con lo scopo di accompagnare donativi. Questa mole composta da numerosi fogli contiene quindici libri poetici del Nasone». Dal II secolo a. Nel mondo antico non godette di molta fortuna a causa del prezzo elevato rispetto a quello del papiro. Il libro in forma di rotolo consisteva in fogli preparati da fibre di papiro phylire disposte in uno strato orizzontale lo strato che poi riceveva la scrittura sovrapposto ad uno strato verticale la faccia opposta.
La scrittura era effettuata su colonne, generalmente sul lato del papiro che presentava le fibre orizzontali. Non si hanno molte testimonianze sui rotoli di pergamena tuttavia la loro forma era simile a quella dei libri in papiro.
Gli inchiostri neri utilizzati erano a base di nerofumo e gomma arabica. Dal II secolo d. La vecchia forma libraria a rotolo scompare in ambito librario. In forma notevolmente differente permane invece in ambito archivistico. Questo mezzo, permettendo l'accelerazione della produzione delle copie di testi contribuisce alla diffusione del libro e della cultura.
Altri suoi distici rivelano che tra i regali fatti da Marziale c'erano copie di Virgilio , di Cicerone e Livio. Le parole di Marziale danno la distinta impressione che tali edizioni fossero qualcosa di recentemente introdotto.
Sono stati rinvenuti "taccuini" contenenti fino a dieci tavolette. Nel tempo, furono anche disponibili modelli di lusso fatti con tavolette di avorio invece che di legno. Ai romani va il merito di aver compiuto questo passo essenziale, e devono averlo fatto alcuni decenni prima della fine del I secolo d.
Il grande vantaggio che offrivano rispetto ai rolli era la capienza, vantaggio che sorgeva dal fatto che la facciata esterna del rotolo era lasciata in bianco, vuota. Il codice invece aveva scritte entrambe le facciate di ogni pagina, come in un libro moderno.
La prima pagina porta il volto del poeta. I codici di cui parlava erano fatti di pergamena ; nei distici che accompagnavano il regalo di una copia di Omero , per esempio, Marziale la descrive come fatta di "cuoio con molte pieghe". Ma copie erano anche fatte di fogli di papiro. Quando i greci ed i romani disponevano solo del rotolo per scrivere libri, si preferiva usare il papiro piuttosto che la pergamena.
I ritrovamenti egiziani ci permettono di tracciare il graduale rimpiazzo del rotolo da parte del codice. Fece la sua comparsa in Egitto non molto dopo il tempo di Marziale, nel II secolo d. Il suo debutto fu modesto. A tutt'oggi sono stati rinvenuti 1. Verso il d. I ritrovamenti egiziani gettano luce anche sulla transizione del codex dal papiro alla pergamena. Sebbene gli undici codici della Bibbia datati in quel secolo fossero papiracei, esistono circa 18 codici dello stesso secolo con scritti pagani e quattro di questi sono in pergamena.
Non ne scegliemmo alcuno, ma ne raccogliemmo altri otto per i quali gli diedi dracme in conto. Il codex tanto apprezzato da Marziale aveva quindi fatto molta strada da Roma. Nel terzo secolo, quando tali codici divennero alquanto diffusi, quelli di pergamena iniziarono ad essere popolari. In breve, anche in Egitto , la fonte mondiale del papiro , il codice di pergamena occupava una notevole quota di mercato.
Sono tutti di pergamena, edizioni eleganti, scritti in elaborata calligrafia su sottili fogli di pergamena. Per tali edizioni di lusso il papiro era certamente inadatto.
In almeno un'area, la giurisprudenza romana , il codex di pergamena veniva prodotto sia in edizioni economiche che in quelle di lusso. La caduta dell'Impero romano nel V secolo d. Il papiro divenne difficile da reperire a causa della mancanza di contatti con l' Antico Egitto e la pergamena , che per secoli era stata tenuta in secondo piano, divenne il materiale di scrittura principale.
I monasteri continuarono la tradizione scritturale latina dell' Impero romano d'Occidente. La tradizione e lo stile dell' Impero romano predominavano ancora, ma gradualmente emerse la cultura del libro medievale. I monaci irlandesi introdussero la spaziatura tra le parole nel VII secolo.
L'innovazione fu poi adottata anche nei Paesi neolatini come l'Italia , anche se non divenne comune prima del XII secolo. Si ritiene che l'inserimento di spazi tra le parole abbia favorito il passaggio dalla lettura semi-vocalizzata a quella silenziosa. Prima dell'invenzione e della diffusione del torchio tipografico , quasi tutti i libri venivano copiati a mano, il che li rendeva costosi e relativamente rari. I piccoli monasteri di solito possedevano al massimo qualche decina di libri, forse qualche centinaio quelli di medie dimensioni.
Il processo della produzione di un libro era lungo e laborioso. Infine, il libro veniva rilegato dal rilegatore. Esistono testi scritti in rosso o addirittura in oro, e diversi colori venivano utilizzati per le miniature. A volte la pergamena era tutta di colore viola e il testo vi era scritto in oro o argento per esempio, il Codex Argenteus. Per tutto l'Alto Medioevo i libri furono copiati prevalentemente nei monasteri, uno alla volta. Il sistema venne gestito da corporazioni laiche di cartolai , che produssero sia materiale religioso che profano.
Questi libri furono chiamati libri catenati. Vedi illustrazione a margine. L' ebraismo ha mantenuto in vita l'arte dello scriba fino ad oggi. Anche gli arabi produssero e rilegarono libri durante il periodo medievale islamico , sviluppando tecniche avanzate di calligrafia araba , miniatura e legatoria.
Col metodo di controllo, solo "gli autori potevano autorizzare le copie, e questo veniva fatto in riunioni pubbliche, in cui il copista leggeva il testo ad alta voce in presenza dell'autore, il quale poi la certificava come precisa". In xilografia , un'immagine a bassorilievo di una pagina intera veniva intagliata su tavolette di legno, inchiostrata e usata per stampare le copie di quella pagina.
Questo metodo ebbe origine in Cina , durante la Dinastia Han prima del a. I monaci o altri che le scrivevano, venivano pagati profumatamente. I primi libri stampati, i singoli fogli e le immagini che furono creati prima del in Europa, sono noti come incunaboli.
Folio 14 recto del Vergilius romanus che contiene un ritratto dell'autore Virgilio. Da notare la libreria capsa , il leggio ed il testo scritto senza spazi in capitale rustica. Leggio con libri catenati , Biblioteca Malatestiana di Cesena. Incunabolo del XV secolo. Si noti la copertina lavorata, le borchie d'angolo e i morsetti.
Insegnamenti scelti di saggi buddisti , il primo libro stampato con caratteri metallici mobili, Le macchine da stampa a vapore diventarono popolari nel XIX secolo. Queste macchine potevano stampare 1. Le macchine tipografiche monotipo e linotipo furono introdotte verso la fine del XIX secolo. Hart , la prima biblioteca di versioni elettroniche liberamente riproducibili di libri stampati.
I libri a stampa sono prodotti stampando ciascuna imposizione tipografica su un foglio di carta. Le varie segnature vengono rilegate per ottenere il volume.
L'apertura delle pagine, specialmente nelle edizioni in brossura , era di solito lasciata al lettore fino agli anni sessanta del XX secolo , mentre ora le segnature vengono rifilate direttamente dalla tipografia. Nei libri antichi il formato dipende dal numero di piegature che il foglio subisce e, quindi, dal numero di carte e pagine stampate sul foglio. Le "carte di guardia", o risguardi, o sguardie, sono le carte di apertura e chiusura del libro vero e proprio, che collegano materialmente il corpo del libro alla coperta o legatura.
Non facendo parte delle segnature , non sono mai contati come pagine.
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